diff --git a/src/function/builtin/ATOM.java b/src/function/builtin/ATOM.java
index 1cb8775..4be2e9f 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/ATOM.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/ATOM.java
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ public class ATOM extends LispFunction {
         argumentValidator.validate(argumentList);
         SExpression argument = argumentList.getCar();
 
-        return argument.atomp() ? Symbol.T : Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+        return argument.atomp() ? Symbol.T : Nil.getInstance();
     }
 
 }
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/COND.java b/src/function/builtin/COND.java
index 3171081..05b1fe4 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/COND.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/COND.java
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ public class COND extends LispFunction {
 
     private SExpression callTailRecursive(Cons argumentList) {
         if (argumentList.nullp())
-            return Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+            return Nil.getInstance();
 
         Cons clause = (Cons) argumentList.getCar();
         Cons remainingClauses = (Cons) argumentList.getCdr();
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ public class COND extends LispFunction {
     }
 
     private boolean isTestSuccessful(SExpression test) {
-        return test != Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+        return test != Nil.getInstance();
     }
 
     private SExpression evaluateResult(Cons clause, SExpression test) {
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/DIVIDE.java b/src/function/builtin/DIVIDE.java
index c8bd044..f9efa8c 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/DIVIDE.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/DIVIDE.java
@@ -2,54 +2,50 @@ package function.builtin;
 
 import java.math.BigInteger;
 
-import function.LispFunction;
+import function.*;
 import sexpression.*;
 
-/**
- * <code>DIVIDE</code> represents the '/' function in Lisp.
- */
 public class DIVIDE extends LispFunction {
 
-    public SExpression call(Cons argList) {
-        // make sure we have received at least one argument
-        if (argList.nullp()) {
-            Cons originalSExpr = new Cons(new Symbol("/"), argList);
+    private ArgumentValidator argumentValidator;
 
-            throw new RuntimeException("too few arguments given to /: " + originalSExpr);
-        }
+    public DIVIDE() {
+        this.argumentValidator = new ArgumentValidator("/");
+        this.argumentValidator.setMinimumNumberOfArguments(1);
+        this.argumentValidator.setEveryArgumentExpectedType(LispNumber.class);
+    }
 
-        SExpression argFirst = argList.getCar();
-        Cons argRest = (Cons) argList.getCdr();
+    public SExpression call(Cons argumentList) {
+        argumentValidator.validate(argumentList);
 
-        // make sure that the first argument is a number
-        if (argFirst.numberp()) {
-            LispNumber num1 = (LispNumber) argFirst;
+        return callTailRecursive(argumentList);
+    }
 
-            if (argRest.nullp()) {
-                // there is only one argument, so return the multiplicative
-                // inverse of the number
-                return new LispNumber(BigInteger.ONE.divide(num1.getValue()));
-            }
+    private SExpression callTailRecursive(Cons argumentList) {
+        Cons remainingArguments = (Cons) argumentList.getCdr();
+        SExpression firstArgument = argumentList.getCar();
+        LispNumber number1 = (LispNumber) firstArgument;
 
-            SExpression argSecond = argRest.getCar();
+        if (remainingArguments.nullp())
+            return getReciprocal(number1);
 
-            // make sure that the next argument is a number as well
-            if (argSecond.numberp()) {
-                LispNumber num2 = (LispNumber) argSecond;
-                LispNumber quotient = new LispNumber(num1.getValue().divide(num2.getValue()));
-                SExpression argCddr = argRest.getCdr();
+        SExpression secondArgument = remainingArguments.getCar();
+        LispNumber number2 = (LispNumber) secondArgument;
+        LispNumber quotient = divide(number1, number2);
+        SExpression remainingNumbers = remainingArguments.getCdr();
 
-                if (argCddr.consp()) {
-                    return call(new Cons(quotient, argCddr));
-                }
+        if (remainingNumbers.nullp())
+            return quotient;
 
-                return quotient;
-            }
+        return callTailRecursive(new Cons(quotient, remainingNumbers));
+    }
 
-            throw new RuntimeException("/: " + argSecond + " is not a number");
-        }
+    private LispNumber getReciprocal(LispNumber number1) {
+        return new LispNumber(BigInteger.ONE.divide(number1.getValue()));
+    }
 
-        throw new RuntimeException("/: " + argFirst + " is not a number");
+    private LispNumber divide(LispNumber number1, LispNumber number2) {
+        return new LispNumber(number1.getValue().divide(number2.getValue()));
     }
 
 }
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/EQ.java b/src/function/builtin/EQ.java
index 9d98d3d..6857537 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/EQ.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/EQ.java
@@ -1,38 +1,44 @@
 package function.builtin;
 
-import function.LispFunction;
+import function.*;
 import sexpression.*;
 
-/**
- * <code>EQ</code> represents the EQ function in Lisp.
- */
 public class EQ extends LispFunction {
 
-    // The number of arguments that EQ takes.
-    private static final int NUM_ARGS = 2;
+    private ArgumentValidator argumentValidator;
 
-    public SExpression call(Cons argList) {
-        // retrieve the number of arguments passed to EQ
-        int argListLength = LENGTH.getLength(argList);
+    public EQ() {
+        this.argumentValidator = new ArgumentValidator("EQ");
+        this.argumentValidator.setExactNumberOfArguments(2);
+    }
 
-        // make sure we have received the proper number of arguments
-        if (argListLength != NUM_ARGS) {
-            Cons originalSExpr = new Cons(new Symbol("EQ"), argList);
-            String errMsg = "too " + ((argListLength > NUM_ARGS) ? "many" : "few") + " arguments given to EQ: "
-                            + originalSExpr;
+    public SExpression call(Cons argumentList) {
+        argumentValidator.validate(argumentList);
 
-            throw new RuntimeException(errMsg);
-        }
+        Cons cdr = (Cons) argumentList.getCdr();
+        SExpression firstArgument = argumentList.getCar();
+        SExpression secondArgument = cdr.getCar();
 
-        SExpression argOne = argList.getCar(); // first argument
-        Cons cdr = (Cons) argList.getCdr();
-        SExpression argTwo = cdr.getCar(); // second argumnet
+        return eq(firstArgument, secondArgument);
+    }
 
-        if (argOne.atomp() && argTwo.atomp()) {
-            return ((argOne.toString().equals(argTwo.toString())) ? Symbol.T : Nil.getUniqueInstance());
-        }
+    private SExpression eq(SExpression firstArgument, SExpression secondArgument) {
+        if (isAtomPair(firstArgument, secondArgument))
+            return atomEq(firstArgument, secondArgument);
 
-        return ((argOne == argTwo) ? Symbol.T : Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        return listEq(firstArgument, secondArgument);
+    }
+
+    private boolean isAtomPair(SExpression firstArgument, SExpression secondArgument) {
+        return firstArgument.atomp() && secondArgument.atomp();
+    }
+
+    private SExpression atomEq(SExpression firstArgument, SExpression secondArgument) {
+        return (firstArgument.toString().equals(secondArgument.toString())) ? Symbol.T : Nil.getInstance();
+    }
+
+    private SExpression listEq(SExpression firstArgument, SExpression secondArgument) {
+        return (firstArgument == secondArgument) ? Symbol.T : Nil.getInstance();
     }
 
 }
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/EQUAL.java b/src/function/builtin/EQUAL.java
index 2a9ec1b..72ad6a4 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/EQUAL.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/EQUAL.java
@@ -39,10 +39,10 @@ public class EQUAL extends LispFunction {
             SExpression carEqual = call(new Cons(listOneCar, LIST.makeList(listTwoCar)));
             SExpression cdrEqual = call(new Cons(listOneCdr, LIST.makeList(listTwoCdr)));
 
-            return (((carEqual == Symbol.T) && (cdrEqual == Symbol.T)) ? Symbol.T : Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+            return (((carEqual == Symbol.T) && (cdrEqual == Symbol.T)) ? Symbol.T : Nil.getInstance());
         }
 
-        return ((argOne.toString().equals(argTwo.toString())) ? Symbol.T : Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        return ((argOne.toString().equals(argTwo.toString())) ? Symbol.T : Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
 }
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/EQUALSP.java b/src/function/builtin/EQUALSP.java
index deff065..5882e87 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/EQUALSP.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/EQUALSP.java
@@ -1,49 +1,43 @@
 package function.builtin;
 
-import function.LispFunction;
+import function.*;
 import sexpression.*;
 
-/**
- * <code>EQUALSP</code> represents the '=' function in Lisp.
- */
 public class EQUALSP extends LispFunction {
 
-    public SExpression call(Cons argList) {
-        // make sure we have received at least one argument
-        if (argList.nullp()) {
-            Cons originalSExpr = new Cons(new Symbol("="), argList);
+    private ArgumentValidator argumentValidator;
 
-            throw new RuntimeException("too few arguments given to =: " + originalSExpr);
-        }
+    public EQUALSP() {
+        this.argumentValidator = new ArgumentValidator("=");
+        this.argumentValidator.setMinimumNumberOfArguments(1);
+        this.argumentValidator.setEveryArgumentExpectedType(LispNumber.class);
+    }
 
-        SExpression firstArg = argList.getCar();
-        Cons argRest = (Cons) argList.getCdr();
+    public SExpression call(Cons argumentList) {
+        argumentValidator.validate(argumentList);
 
-        // make sure that the first argument is a number
-        if (firstArg.numberp()) {
-            LispNumber num1 = (LispNumber) firstArg;
+        return callTailRecursive(argumentList);
+    }
 
-            if (argRest.nullp()) {
-                return Symbol.T;
-            }
+    private SExpression callTailRecursive(Cons argumentList) {
+        Cons remainingArguments = (Cons) argumentList.getCdr();
 
-            SExpression secondArg = argRest.getCar();
+        if (remainingArguments.nullp())
+            return Symbol.T;
 
-            // make sure that the second argument is a number as well
-            if (secondArg.numberp()) {
-                LispNumber num2 = (LispNumber) secondArg;
+        SExpression firstArgument = argumentList.getCar();
+        LispNumber number1 = (LispNumber) firstArgument;
+        SExpression secondArgument = remainingArguments.getCar();
+        LispNumber number2 = (LispNumber) secondArgument;
 
-                if (num1.getValue().equals(num2.getValue())) {
-                    return call(argRest);
-                }
+        if (!isEqual(number1, number2))
+            return Nil.getInstance();
 
-                return Nil.getUniqueInstance();
-            }
+        return callTailRecursive(remainingArguments);
+    }
 
-            throw new RuntimeException("=: " + secondArg + " is not a number");
-        }
-
-        throw new RuntimeException("=: " + firstArg + " is not a number");
+    private boolean isEqual(LispNumber number1, LispNumber number2) {
+        return number1.getValue().equals(number2.getValue());
     }
 
 }
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/EVAL.java b/src/function/builtin/EVAL.java
index d965588..19feb34 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/EVAL.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/EVAL.java
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ public class EVAL extends LispFunction {
 
     public static SExpression lookupSymbol(String symbolName) {
         if (symbolName.equals("NIL")) {
-            return Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+            return Nil.getInstance();
         } else if (symbolName.equals("T")) {
             return Symbol.T;
         } else if (symbolName.startsWith(":")) {
@@ -173,7 +173,7 @@ public class EVAL extends LispFunction {
 
     private Cons evaluateArgList(Cons arguments) {
         if (arguments.nullp()) {
-            return Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+            return Nil.getInstance();
         }
 
         SExpression car = eval(arguments.getCar());
@@ -185,7 +185,7 @@ public class EVAL extends LispFunction {
 
         // remove any parameters found after a dot (put here in case the check
         // for a dotted parameter list is not done prior to this call)
-        return new Cons(car, Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        return new Cons(car, Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
 }
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/GREATERP.java b/src/function/builtin/GREATERP.java
index fed1bbf..a4ed18a 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/GREATERP.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/GREATERP.java
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ public class GREATERP extends LispFunction {
                     return call(argRest);
                 }
 
-                return Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+                return Nil.getInstance();
             }
 
             throw new RuntimeException(">: " + secondArg + " is not a number");
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/LESSP.java b/src/function/builtin/LESSP.java
index 9275327..82c3ade 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/LESSP.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/LESSP.java
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ public class LESSP extends LispFunction {
                     return call(argRest);
                 }
 
-                return Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+                return Nil.getInstance();
             }
 
             throw new RuntimeException("<: " + secondArg + " is not a number");
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/LET.java b/src/function/builtin/LET.java
index 80698cb..2d16de3 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/LET.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/LET.java
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ public class LET extends LispFunction {
         addVariablesToTable(environment, car);
         SETF.setEnvironment(environment);
 
-        SExpression retval = Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+        SExpression retval = Nil.getInstance();
 
         // evaluate all S-expression in the body
         while (cdr.consp()) {
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/LIST.java b/src/function/builtin/LIST.java
index 0bcf90e..0dc83cc 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/LIST.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/LIST.java
@@ -17,13 +17,13 @@ public class LIST extends LispFunction {
      *  a list with <code>sexpr</code> as the car and NIL as the cdr.
      */
     public static Cons makeList(SExpression sexpr) {
-        return new Cons(sexpr, Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        return new Cons(sexpr, Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
     public Cons call(Cons argList) {
         if (argList.nullp()) {
             // return NIL if there were no arguments passed to LIST
-            return Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+            return Nil.getInstance();
         }
 
         SExpression argCar = argList.getCar();
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/LISTP.java b/src/function/builtin/LISTP.java
index 1db2101..4519ba1 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/LISTP.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/LISTP.java
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ public class LISTP extends LispFunction {
 
         SExpression arg = argList.getCar();
 
-        return (arg.listp() ? Symbol.T : Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        return (arg.listp() ? Symbol.T : Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
 }
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/LOAD.java b/src/function/builtin/LOAD.java
index b02ebb7..c03ee1a 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/LOAD.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/LOAD.java
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ public class LOAD extends LispFunction {
         } catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
             System.out.println("LOAD: could not open " + fileName);
 
-            return Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+            return Nil.getInstance();
         }
 
         // attempt to evaluate all the S-expressions contained in the file
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ public class LOAD extends LispFunction {
             } catch (RuntimeException e) {
                 System.out.println("LOAD: " + e.getMessage());
 
-                return Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+                return Nil.getInstance();
             }
         }
 
diff --git a/src/function/builtin/NULL.java b/src/function/builtin/NULL.java
index 19607e7..50dc455 100644
--- a/src/function/builtin/NULL.java
+++ b/src/function/builtin/NULL.java
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ public class NULL extends LispFunction {
 
         SExpression arg = argList.getCar();
 
-        return (arg.nullp() ? Symbol.T : Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        return (arg.nullp() ? Symbol.T : Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
 }
diff --git a/src/sexpression/Nil.java b/src/sexpression/Nil.java
index 49d9388..6b1977a 100644
--- a/src/sexpression/Nil.java
+++ b/src/sexpression/Nil.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ public class Nil extends Cons {
 
     private static Nil uniqueInstance = new Nil();
 
-    public static Nil getUniqueInstance() {
+    public static Nil getInstance() {
         return uniqueInstance;
     }
 
@@ -33,14 +33,12 @@ public class Nil extends Cons {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Set the car of this CONS cell to the specified value. This method does nothing (the car of
-     * NIL can not be changed).
+     * The car of NIL can not be changed.
      */
     public void setCar(SExpression newCar) {}
 
     /**
-     * Set the cdr of this CONS cell to the specified value. This method does nothing (the cdr of
-     * NIL can not be changed).
+     * The cdr of NIL can not be changed.
      */
     public void setCdr(SExpression newCdr) {}
 
diff --git a/src/token/QuoteMark.java b/src/token/QuoteMark.java
index 64ee3f4..660bd5d 100644
--- a/src/token/QuoteMark.java
+++ b/src/token/QuoteMark.java
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ public class QuoteMark extends Token {
         Token nextToken = getNextToken.get();
         SExpression argument = nextToken.parseSExpression(getNextToken);
 
-        return new Cons(Symbol.createQuote(), new Cons(argument, Nil.getUniqueInstance()));
+        return new Cons(Symbol.createQuote(), new Cons(argument, Nil.getInstance()));
     }
 
 }
diff --git a/src/token/RightParenthesis.java b/src/token/RightParenthesis.java
index f94db7e..26ac921 100644
--- a/src/token/RightParenthesis.java
+++ b/src/token/RightParenthesis.java
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ public class RightParenthesis extends Token {
 
     @Override
     public SExpression parseSExpressionTail(Supplier<Token> getNextToken) {
-        return Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+        return Nil.getInstance();
     }
 
     public static class StartsWithRightParenthesisException extends LineColumnException {
diff --git a/test/function/ArgumentValidatorTester.java b/test/function/ArgumentValidatorTester.java
index c102956..97ae1d3 100644
--- a/test/function/ArgumentValidatorTester.java
+++ b/test/function/ArgumentValidatorTester.java
@@ -13,10 +13,10 @@ public class ArgumentValidatorTester {
     private ArgumentValidator validator;
 
     private Cons makeArgumentListOfSize(int size) {
-        Cons argumentList = Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+        Cons argumentList = Nil.getInstance();
 
         for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
-            argumentList = new Cons(Nil.getUniqueInstance(), argumentList);
+            argumentList = new Cons(Nil.getInstance(), argumentList);
 
         return argumentList;
     }
@@ -73,14 +73,14 @@ public class ArgumentValidatorTester {
 
     @Test
     public void tooManyArgumentsException_HasCorrectSeverity() {
-        TooManyArgumentsException e = new TooManyArgumentsException("TEST", Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        TooManyArgumentsException e = new TooManyArgumentsException("TEST", Nil.getInstance());
 
         assertTrue(e.getSeverity() < ErrorManager.CRITICAL_LEVEL);
     }
 
     @Test
     public void tooManyArgumentsException_HasMessageText() {
-        TooManyArgumentsException e = new TooManyArgumentsException("TEST", Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        TooManyArgumentsException e = new TooManyArgumentsException("TEST", Nil.getInstance());
 
         assertNotNull(e.getMessage());
         assertTrue(e.getMessage().length() > 0);
@@ -88,14 +88,14 @@ public class ArgumentValidatorTester {
 
     @Test
     public void tooFewArgumentsException_HasCorrectSeverity() {
-        TooFewArgumentsException e = new TooFewArgumentsException("TEST", Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        TooFewArgumentsException e = new TooFewArgumentsException("TEST", Nil.getInstance());
 
         assertTrue(e.getSeverity() < ErrorManager.CRITICAL_LEVEL);
     }
 
     @Test
     public void tooFewArgumentsException_HasMessageText() {
-        TooFewArgumentsException e = new TooFewArgumentsException("TEST", Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        TooFewArgumentsException e = new TooFewArgumentsException("TEST", Nil.getInstance());
 
         assertNotNull(e.getMessage());
         assertTrue(e.getMessage().length() > 0);
@@ -103,14 +103,14 @@ public class ArgumentValidatorTester {
 
     @Test
     public void BadArgumentTypeException_HasCorrectSeverity() {
-        BadArgumentTypeException e = new BadArgumentTypeException("TEST", Nil.getUniqueInstance(), SExpression.class);
+        BadArgumentTypeException e = new BadArgumentTypeException("TEST", Nil.getInstance(), SExpression.class);
 
         assertTrue(e.getSeverity() < ErrorManager.CRITICAL_LEVEL);
     }
 
     @Test
     public void BadArgumentTypeException_HasMessageText() {
-        BadArgumentTypeException e = new BadArgumentTypeException("TEST", Nil.getUniqueInstance(), SExpression.class);
+        BadArgumentTypeException e = new BadArgumentTypeException("TEST", Nil.getInstance(), SExpression.class);
 
         assertNotNull(e.getMessage());
         assertTrue(e.getMessage().length() > 0);
@@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ public class ArgumentValidatorTester {
 
     @Test
     public void correctFirstAndRestArgumentTypes_DoesNotThrowException() {
-        Cons argumentList = new Cons(Symbol.T, new Cons(Nil.getUniqueInstance(), Nil.getUniqueInstance()));
+        Cons argumentList = new Cons(Symbol.T, new Cons(Nil.getInstance(), Nil.getInstance()));
 
         validator.setFirstArgumentExpectedType(Symbol.class);
         validator.setTrailingArgumentExpectedType(Cons.class);
@@ -139,7 +139,7 @@ public class ArgumentValidatorTester {
 
     @Test(expected = BadArgumentTypeException.class)
     public void badFirstArgumentType_ThrowsException() {
-        Cons argumentList = new Cons(Symbol.T, new Cons(Nil.getUniqueInstance(), Nil.getUniqueInstance()));
+        Cons argumentList = new Cons(Symbol.T, new Cons(Nil.getInstance(), Nil.getInstance()));
 
         validator.setFirstArgumentExpectedType(Cons.class);
         validator.setTrailingArgumentExpectedType(Cons.class);
@@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ public class ArgumentValidatorTester {
 
     @Test(expected = BadArgumentTypeException.class)
     public void badTrailingArgumentType_ThrowsException() {
-        Cons argumentList = new Cons(Symbol.T, new Cons(Nil.getUniqueInstance(), Nil.getUniqueInstance()));
+        Cons argumentList = new Cons(Symbol.T, new Cons(Nil.getInstance(), Nil.getInstance()));
 
         validator.setFirstArgumentExpectedType(Symbol.class);
         validator.setTrailingArgumentExpectedType(Symbol.class);
@@ -157,7 +157,7 @@ public class ArgumentValidatorTester {
 
     @Test
     public void expectedTypeWithNoDisplayName_DoesNotCauseNPE() {
-        Cons argumentList = new Cons(Symbol.T, new Cons(Nil.getUniqueInstance(), Nil.getUniqueInstance()));
+        Cons argumentList = new Cons(Symbol.T, new Cons(Nil.getInstance(), Nil.getInstance()));
         SExpression withoutDisplayName = new SExpression() {};
 
         validator.setEveryArgumentExpectedType(withoutDisplayName.getClass());
@@ -186,14 +186,14 @@ public class ArgumentValidatorTester {
 
     @Test
     public void DottedArgumentListException_HasCorrectSeverity() {
-        DottedArgumentListException e = new DottedArgumentListException("TEST", Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        DottedArgumentListException e = new DottedArgumentListException("TEST", Nil.getInstance());
 
         assertTrue(e.getSeverity() < ErrorManager.CRITICAL_LEVEL);
     }
 
     @Test
     public void dottedArgumentListException_HasMessageText() {
-        DottedArgumentListException e = new DottedArgumentListException("TEST", Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        DottedArgumentListException e = new DottedArgumentListException("TEST", Nil.getInstance());
 
         assertNotNull(e.getMessage());
         assertTrue(e.getMessage().length() > 0);
@@ -202,19 +202,19 @@ public class ArgumentValidatorTester {
     @Test(expected = BadArgumentTypeException.class)
     public void doNotAcceptNil_ThrowsExceptionOnNilArgument() {
         validator.doNotAcceptNil();
-        validator.validate(new Cons(Symbol.T, new Cons(Nil.getUniqueInstance(), Nil.getUniqueInstance())));
+        validator.validate(new Cons(Symbol.T, new Cons(Nil.getInstance(), Nil.getInstance())));
     }
 
     @Test
     public void doNotAcceptNil_AllowsEmptyArgumentList() {
         validator.doNotAcceptNil();
-        validator.validate(Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        validator.validate(Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
     @Test
     public void doNotAcceptNil_AllowsProperList() {
         validator.doNotAcceptNil();
-        validator.validate(new Cons(Symbol.T, new Cons(Symbol.T, Nil.getUniqueInstance())));
+        validator.validate(new Cons(Symbol.T, new Cons(Symbol.T, Nil.getInstance())));
     }
 
 }
diff --git a/test/function/UserDefinedFunctionTester.java b/test/function/UserDefinedFunctionTester.java
index 7546b74..7ba85ea 100644
--- a/test/function/UserDefinedFunctionTester.java
+++ b/test/function/UserDefinedFunctionTester.java
@@ -13,28 +13,28 @@ public class UserDefinedFunctionTester {
     private static final String FUNCTION_NAME = "TEST";
 
     private UserDefinedFunction createNoArgumentFunctionThatReturnsNil() {
-        return new UserDefinedFunction(FUNCTION_NAME, Nil.getUniqueInstance(),
-                                       new Cons(Nil.getUniqueInstance(), Nil.getUniqueInstance()));
+        return new UserDefinedFunction(FUNCTION_NAME, Nil.getInstance(),
+                                       new Cons(Nil.getInstance(), Nil.getInstance()));
     }
 
     private UserDefinedFunction createOneArgumentFunctionThatReturnsArgument() {
-        return new UserDefinedFunction(FUNCTION_NAME, new Cons(new Symbol("X"), Nil.getUniqueInstance()),
-                                       new Cons(new Symbol("X"), Nil.getUniqueInstance()));
+        return new UserDefinedFunction(FUNCTION_NAME, new Cons(new Symbol("X"), Nil.getInstance()),
+                                       new Cons(new Symbol("X"), Nil.getInstance()));
     }
 
     @Test
     public void testNilFunctionCall() {
         UserDefinedFunction function = createNoArgumentFunctionThatReturnsNil();
 
-        assertEquals(Nil.getUniqueInstance(), function.call(Nil.getUniqueInstance()));
+        assertEquals(Nil.getInstance(), function.call(Nil.getInstance()));
     }
 
     @Test
     public void testNilFunctionToString() {
         UserDefinedFunction function = createNoArgumentFunctionThatReturnsNil();
         Cons expected = new Cons(new Symbol(FUNCTION_NAME),
-                                 new Cons(Nil.getUniqueInstance(),
-                                          new Cons(Nil.getUniqueInstance(), Nil.getUniqueInstance())));
+                                 new Cons(Nil.getInstance(),
+                                          new Cons(Nil.getInstance(), Nil.getInstance())));
 
         assertSExpressionsMatch(expected, function.getLambdaExpression());
     }
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ public class UserDefinedFunctionTester {
     public void oneArgumentFunction_ReturnsCorrectValue() {
         UserDefinedFunction function = createOneArgumentFunctionThatReturnsArgument();
         SExpression argument = new LispNumber("23");
-        Cons argumentList = new Cons(argument, Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        Cons argumentList = new Cons(argument, Nil.getInstance());
 
         assertSExpressionsMatch(argument, function.call(argumentList));
     }
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ public class UserDefinedFunctionTester {
     public void oneArgumentFunction_ThrowsExceptionWithTooManyArguments() {
         UserDefinedFunction function = createOneArgumentFunctionThatReturnsArgument();
         SExpression argument = new LispNumber("23");
-        Cons argumentList = new Cons(argument, new Cons(argument, Nil.getUniqueInstance()));
+        Cons argumentList = new Cons(argument, new Cons(argument, Nil.getInstance()));
 
         function.call(argumentList);
     }
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ public class UserDefinedFunctionTester {
     public void oneArgumentFunction_ThrowsExceptionWithTooFewArguments() {
         UserDefinedFunction function = createOneArgumentFunctionThatReturnsArgument();
 
-        function.call(Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        function.call(Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
 }
diff --git a/test/function/builtin/DIVIDETester.java b/test/function/builtin/DIVIDETester.java
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..634d573
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test/function/builtin/DIVIDETester.java
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package function.builtin;
+
+import static testutil.TestUtilities.*;
+
+import org.junit.Test;
+
+import function.ArgumentValidator.*;
+
+public class DIVIDETester {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDivideWithOne() {
+        String input = "(/ 1)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("1"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDivideWithTwo() {
+        String input = "(/ 2)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("0"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDivideTwoNumbers() {
+        String input = "(/ 24 3)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("8"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDivideSeveralNumbers() {
+        String input = "(/ 256 2 2 8)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("8"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDivideTwoNumbersWithRemainder() {
+        String input = "(/ 9 2)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("4"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testDivideSeveralNumbersWithRemainder() {
+        String input = "(/ 19 2 5)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("1"));
+    }
+
+    @Test(expected = BadArgumentTypeException.class)
+    public void testDivideWithNonNumber() {
+        evaluateString("(/ 'x)");
+    }
+
+    @Test(expected = TooFewArgumentsException.class)
+    public void testDivideWithTooFewArguments() {
+        evaluateString("(/)");
+    }
+
+}
diff --git a/test/function/builtin/EQTester.java b/test/function/builtin/EQTester.java
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6af3b00
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test/function/builtin/EQTester.java
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+package function.builtin;
+
+import static testutil.TestUtilities.*;
+
+import org.junit.Test;
+
+import function.ArgumentValidator.*;
+
+public class EQTester {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqWithEqualAtoms() {
+        String input = "(eq 1 1)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("t"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqWithUnequalAtoms() {
+        String input = "(eq 1 2)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("nil"));
+    }
+    @Test
+    public void testEqWithAtomAndList() {
+        String input = "(eq 1 '(2))";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("nil"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqWithSameList() {
+        String initializeL1 = "(setf l1 '(1 2 3))";
+        String initializeL2 = "(setf l2 l1)";
+        String input = "(eq l1 l2)";
+
+        evaluateString(initializeL1);
+        evaluateString(initializeL2);
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("t"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqWithEqualLists() {
+        String input = "(eq '(1 2) '(1 2))";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("nil"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqWithUnequalLists() {
+        String input = "(eq '(1 2) '(3 4))";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("nil"));
+    }
+
+    @Test(expected = TooManyArgumentsException.class)
+    public void testEqWithTooManyArguments() {
+        evaluateString("(eq 'one 'two 'three)");
+    }
+
+    @Test(expected = TooFewArgumentsException.class)
+    public void testEqWithTooFewArguments() {
+        evaluateString("(eq 'one)");
+    }
+
+}
diff --git a/test/function/builtin/EQUALSPTester.java b/test/function/builtin/EQUALSPTester.java
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cd19a3a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test/function/builtin/EQUALSPTester.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+package function.builtin;
+
+import static testutil.TestUtilities.*;
+
+import org.junit.Test;
+
+import function.ArgumentValidator.*;
+
+public class EQUALSPTester {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqualspWithOneNumber() {
+        String input = "(= 1)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("t"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqualspWithEqualNumbers() {
+        String input = "(= 1 1)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("t"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqualspWithNonEqualNumbers() {
+        String input = "(= 1 2)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("nil"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqualspWithManyEqualNumbers() {
+        String input = "(= 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("t"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testEqualspWithManyNonEqualNumbers() {
+        String input = "(= 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("nil"));
+    }
+
+    @Test(expected = BadArgumentTypeException.class)
+    public void testEqualspWithNonNumbers() {
+        evaluateString("(= 'x 'x)");
+    }
+
+    @Test(expected = TooFewArgumentsException.class)
+    public void testEqualspWithTooFewArguments() {
+        evaluateString("(=)");
+    }
+
+}
diff --git a/test/function/builtin/EQUALTester.java b/test/function/builtin/EQUALTester.java
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..13e21ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test/function/builtin/EQUALTester.java
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+package function.builtin;
+
+import static testutil.TestUtilities.*;
+
+import org.junit.Test;
+
+import function.ArgumentValidator.*;
+
+public class EQUALTester {
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCarWithNil() {
+        String input = "(car nil)";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("()"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testCarWithList() {
+        String input = "(car '(1 2 3))";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("1"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testNestedCarWithList() {
+        String input = "(car (car '((1 2) 3)))";
+
+        assertSExpressionsMatch(evaluateString(input), parseString("1"));
+    }
+
+    @Test(expected = BadArgumentTypeException.class)
+    public void testCarWithNonList() {
+        evaluateString("(car 'x)");
+    }
+
+    @Test(expected = TooManyArgumentsException.class)
+    public void testCarWithTooManyArguments() {
+        evaluateString("(car '(1 2) '(1 2) \"oh\")");
+    }
+
+    @Test(expected = TooFewArgumentsException.class)
+    public void testCarWithTooFewArguments() {
+        evaluateString("(car)");
+    }
+
+}
diff --git a/test/sexpression/SExpressionTester.java b/test/sexpression/SExpressionTester.java
index 014fa75..4e9a332 100644
--- a/test/sexpression/SExpressionTester.java
+++ b/test/sexpression/SExpressionTester.java
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ public class SExpressionTester {
     public void testNilToString() {
         String input = "NIL";
 
-        assertSExpressionMatchesString(input, Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        assertSExpressionMatchesString(input, Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
     @Test
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ public class SExpressionTester {
     @Test
     public void testSimpleConsToString() {
         String expected = "(1)";
-        Cons cons = new Cons(new LispNumber("1"), Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        Cons cons = new Cons(new LispNumber("1"), Nil.getInstance());
 
         assertSExpressionMatchesString(expected, cons);
     }
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ public class SExpressionTester {
         String expected = "(1 A \"string\")";
         Cons list = new Cons(new LispNumber("1"),
                              new Cons(new Symbol("a"),
-                                      new Cons(new LispString("\"string\""), Nil.getUniqueInstance())));
+                                      new Cons(new LispString("\"string\""), Nil.getInstance())));
 
         assertSExpressionMatchesString(expected, list);
     }
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ public class SExpressionTester {
     @Test
     public void testLambdaExpressionToString() {
         String expected = "(LAMBDA)";
-        LambdaExpression lambda = new LambdaExpression(new Cons(new Symbol("lambda"), Nil.getUniqueInstance()), null);
+        LambdaExpression lambda = new LambdaExpression(new Cons(new Symbol("lambda"), Nil.getInstance()), null);
 
         assertSExpressionMatchesString(expected, lambda);
     }
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ public class SExpressionTester {
     @Test
     public void testLambdaExpressionGetLambdaExpression() {
         String expected = "(LAMBDA)";
-        LambdaExpression lambda = new LambdaExpression(new Cons(new Symbol("lambda"), Nil.getUniqueInstance()), null);
+        LambdaExpression lambda = new LambdaExpression(new Cons(new Symbol("lambda"), Nil.getInstance()), null);
 
         assertSExpressionMatchesString(expected, lambda.getLambdaExpression());
     }
@@ -99,9 +99,9 @@ public class SExpressionTester {
     @Test
     public void testLambdaExpressionGetFunction() {
         String expected = "(LAMBDA)";
-        UserDefinedFunction function = new UserDefinedFunction(expected, Nil.getUniqueInstance(),
-                                                               Nil.getUniqueInstance());
-        LambdaExpression lambda = new LambdaExpression(new Cons(new Symbol("lambda"), Nil.getUniqueInstance()),
+        UserDefinedFunction function = new UserDefinedFunction(expected, Nil.getInstance(),
+                                                               Nil.getInstance());
+        LambdaExpression lambda = new LambdaExpression(new Cons(new Symbol("lambda"), Nil.getInstance()),
                                                        function);
 
         assertEquals(function, lambda.getFunction());
@@ -109,28 +109,28 @@ public class SExpressionTester {
 
     @Test
     public void testCarOfNilIsNil() {
-        assertEquals(Nil.getUniqueInstance().getCar(), Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        assertEquals(Nil.getInstance().getCar(), Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
     @Test
     public void testCdrOfNilIsNil() {
-        assertEquals(Nil.getUniqueInstance().getCdr(), Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        assertEquals(Nil.getInstance().getCdr(), Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
     @Test
     public void afterSettingCarOfNil_ShouldStillBeNil() {
-        Cons nil = Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+        Cons nil = Nil.getInstance();
         nil.setCar(new LispNumber("2"));
 
-        assertEquals(nil.getCar(), Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        assertEquals(nil.getCar(), Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
     @Test
     public void afterSettingCdrOfNil_ShouldStillBeNil() {
-        Cons nil = Nil.getUniqueInstance();
+        Cons nil = Nil.getInstance();
         nil.setCdr(new LispNumber("2"));
 
-        assertEquals(nil.getCdr(), Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        assertEquals(nil.getCdr(), Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
     @Test
diff --git a/test/table/SymbolTableTester.java b/test/table/SymbolTableTester.java
index 6791364..015c62f 100644
--- a/test/table/SymbolTableTester.java
+++ b/test/table/SymbolTableTester.java
@@ -35,8 +35,8 @@ public class SymbolTableTester {
     @Test
     public void redefineSymbolValue() {
         symbolTable.put("symbol", Symbol.T);
-        symbolTable.put("symbol", Nil.getUniqueInstance());
-        assertEquals(symbolTable.get("symbol"), Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        symbolTable.put("symbol", Nil.getInstance());
+        assertEquals(symbolTable.get("symbol"), Nil.getInstance());
     }
 
     @Test
diff --git a/test/testutil/SExpressionTypeAssertions.java b/test/testutil/SExpressionTypeAssertions.java
index 6d8acf8..9b8126c 100644
--- a/test/testutil/SExpressionTypeAssertions.java
+++ b/test/testutil/SExpressionTypeAssertions.java
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ public final class SExpressionTypeAssertions {
     }
 
     public static void assertNil(SExpression sExpression) {
-        assertEquals(sExpression, Nil.getUniqueInstance());
+        assertEquals(sExpression, Nil.getInstance());
 
         assertTrue(sExpression.atomp());
         assertFalse(sExpression.consp());